Munitions Constituents - Electrochemical Treatment - Revision history

Debra Tabron at 18:38, 25 February 2025

2025-02-25T18:38:05Z

Admin at 22:47, 21 February 2025

2025-02-21T22:47:06Z

Admin at 22:10, 21 February 2025

2025-02-21T22:10:43Z

Admin at 21:59, 21 February 2025

2025-02-21T21:59:03Z

Admin at 21:55, 21 February 2025

2025-02-21T21:55:06Z

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2025-02-21T21:50:16Z

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2025-02-21T21:49:52Z

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← Older revision		Revision as of 18:38, 25 February 2025
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−	'''Contributor(s):''' Dr. Brian P. Chaplin and S. M. Mohaiminul Islam	+	'''Contributor(s):''' [[Dr. Brian P. Chaplin]] and [[S. M. Mohaiminul Islam]]

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-Electrochemical treatment of [[Munitions Constituents|munitions constituents]] is an emerging technology for the remediation of explosive compounds in wastewater. This process utilizes electrochemical oxidation mechanisms to degrade both legacy explosives, as well as newer [[wikipedia:Insensitive_munition|insensitive high explosives]]. The treatment relies on direct electron transfer reactions and the generation of highly reactive [[wikipedia:Hydroxyl_radical|hydroxyl radicals]] at the electrode surface. Recent research has elucidated the oxidation pathways and byproducts for various munitions constituents, demonstrating the potential of electrochemical methods as an effective and environmentally friendly alternative to traditional [[Munitions Constituents - Sorption|adsorption-based treatments]] for explosive-contaminated water.
+Electrochemical treatment of [[Munitions Constituents|munitions constituents]] is an emerging technology for the remediation of explosive compounds in wastewater. This process utilizes [[wikipedia:Electro-oxidation|electrochemical oxidation]] mechanisms to degrade both legacy explosives, as well as newer [[wikipedia:Insensitive_munition|insensitive high explosives]]. The treatment relies on direct electron transfer reactions and the generation of highly reactive [[wikipedia:Hydroxyl_radical|hydroxyl radicals]] at the electrode surface. Recent research has elucidated the oxidation pathways and byproducts for various munitions constituents, demonstrating the potential of electrochemical methods as an effective and environmentally friendly alternative to traditional [[Munitions Constituents - Sorption|adsorption-based treatments]] for explosive-contaminated water.
 <div style="float:right;margin:0 0 2em 2em;">__TOC__</div>
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 ==Electrochemical Oxidation Mechanisms==
 [[File:ChaplinFig1.png | thumb | 450px | Figure 1. Conceptual diagram of the two primary electrochemical oxidation mechanisms.]]
-In electrochemical wastewater treatment, contaminants react either through a direct electron transfer (DET) reaction with the electrode or with a reactive species generated at the surface of the electrode (Figure 1)<ref>Comninellis, Ch., and Pulgarin, C., 1993. Electrochemical Oxidation of Phenol for Wastewater Treatment Using SnO<sub>2</sub>, Anodes. Journal of Applied Electrochemistry,  23 (2), pp. 108–112. [https://doi.org/10.1007/BF00246946 doi: 10.1007/BF00246946]</ref><ref>Borrás, C., Berzoy, C.,  Mostany, J., and Scharifker, B.R., 2006. Oxidation of P-Methoxyphenol on SnO<sub>2</sub>–Sb<sub>2</sub>O<sub>5</sub> Electrodes: Effects of Electrode Potential and Concentration on the Mineralization Efficiency. Journal of Applied Electrochemistry, 36 (4), pp. 433–439. [https://doi.org/10.1007/s10800-005-9088-5 doi: 10.1007/s10800-005-9088-5]</ref><ref>Borrás, C., Rodríguez, P., Laredo, T., Mostany, J., and Scharifker, B.R., 2004. Electrooxidation of Aqueous P-Methoxyphenol on Lead Oxide Electrodes. Journal of Applied Electrochemistry, 34 (6), pp. 583–589. [https://doi.org/10.1023/B:JACH.0000021922.73582.85 doi: 10.1023/B:JACH.0000021922.73582.85]</ref><ref>Borras, C., Laredo, T., and Scharifker, B.R., 2003. Competitive Electrochemical Oxidation of p-chlorophenol and p-nitrophenol on Bi-Doped PbO<sub>2</sub>. Electrochimica Acta, 48 (19), pp. 2775–2780. [https://doi.org/10.1016/S0013-4686(03)00411-0 doi: 10.1016/S0013-4686(03)00411-0].</ref><ref>Kesselman, J. M., Weres, O., Lewis, N. S., and Hoffmann, M.R., 1997. Electrochemical Production of Hydroxyl Radical at Polycrystalline Nb-Doped TiO<sub>2</sub> Electrodes and Estimation of the Partitioning between Hydroxyl Radical and Direct Hole Oxidation Pathways. The Journal of Physical Chemistry B, 101(14), pp. 2637–2643. [https://doi.org/10.1021/jp962669r doi: 10.1021/jp962669r].</ref><ref>Zaky, A.M., and Chaplin, B.P., 2013. Porous Substoichiometric TiO<sub>2</sub> Anodes as Reactive Electrochemical Membranes for Water Treatment. Environmental Science & Technology, 47(12), pp. 6554–6563. [https://doi.org/10.1021/es401287e doi: 10.1021/es401287e]</ref><ref>Bejan, D., Guinea, E., and Bunce, N.J., 2012. On the Nature of the Hydroxyl Radicals Produced at Boron-Doped Diamond and Ebonex<sup>®</sup> Anodes. Electrochimica Acta, 69, pp. 275–281. [https://doi.org/10.1016/j.electacta.2012.02.097 doi: 10.1016/j.electacta.2012.02.097.] </ref>. Electrochemical advanced oxidation process (EAOP) electrodes generally have a high overpotential for the oxygen evolution reaction, which allows them to produce hydroxyl radicals (OH<sup>•</sup>), a strong oxidant [E<sup>0</sup>(OH<sup>•</sup>/H<sub>2</sub>O) = 2.8 vs normal hydrogen electrode (NHE)]<ref>Gligorovski, S., Strekowski, R., Barbati, S., and Vione, D., 2015. Environmental Implications of Hydroxyl Radicals (•OH). Chemical Reviews, 115(24), pp. 13051–13092. [https://doi.org/10.1021/cr500310b doi: 10.1021/cr500310b].</ref>, through water oxidation according to equation (1).
+In [[wikipedia:Electro-oxidation|electrochemical wastewater treatment]], contaminants react either through a direct electron transfer (DET) reaction with the electrode or with a reactive species generated at the surface of the electrode (Figure 1)<ref>Comninellis, Ch., and Pulgarin, C., 1993. Electrochemical Oxidation of Phenol for Wastewater Treatment Using SnO<sub>2</sub>, Anodes. Journal of Applied Electrochemistry,  23 (2), pp. 108–112. [https://doi.org/10.1007/BF00246946 doi: 10.1007/BF00246946]</ref><ref>Borrás, C., Berzoy, C.,  Mostany, J., and Scharifker, B.R., 2006. Oxidation of P-Methoxyphenol on SnO<sub>2</sub>–Sb<sub>2</sub>O<sub>5</sub> Electrodes: Effects of Electrode Potential and Concentration on the Mineralization Efficiency. Journal of Applied Electrochemistry, 36 (4), pp. 433–439. [https://doi.org/10.1007/s10800-005-9088-5 doi: 10.1007/s10800-005-9088-5]</ref><ref>Borrás, C., Rodríguez, P., Laredo, T., Mostany, J., and Scharifker, B.R., 2004. Electrooxidation of Aqueous P-Methoxyphenol on Lead Oxide Electrodes. Journal of Applied Electrochemistry, 34 (6), pp. 583–589. [https://doi.org/10.1023/B:JACH.0000021922.73582.85 doi: 10.1023/B:JACH.0000021922.73582.85]</ref><ref>Borras, C., Laredo, T., and Scharifker, B.R., 2003. Competitive Electrochemical Oxidation of p-chlorophenol and p-nitrophenol on Bi-Doped PbO<sub>2</sub>. Electrochimica Acta, 48 (19), pp. 2775–2780. [https://doi.org/10.1016/S0013-4686(03)00411-0 doi: 10.1016/S0013-4686(03)00411-0].</ref><ref>Kesselman, J. M., Weres, O., Lewis, N. S., and Hoffmann, M.R., 1997. Electrochemical Production of Hydroxyl Radical at Polycrystalline Nb-Doped TiO<sub>2</sub> Electrodes and Estimation of the Partitioning between Hydroxyl Radical and Direct Hole Oxidation Pathways. The Journal of Physical Chemistry B, 101(14), pp. 2637–2643. [https://doi.org/10.1021/jp962669r doi: 10.1021/jp962669r].</ref><ref>Zaky, A.M., and Chaplin, B.P., 2013. Porous Substoichiometric TiO<sub>2</sub> Anodes as Reactive Electrochemical Membranes for Water Treatment. Environmental Science & Technology, 47(12), pp. 6554–6563. [https://doi.org/10.1021/es401287e doi: 10.1021/es401287e]</ref><ref>Bejan, D., Guinea, E., and Bunce, N.J., 2012. On the Nature of the Hydroxyl Radicals Produced at Boron-Doped Diamond and Ebonex<sup>®</sup> Anodes. Electrochimica Acta, 69, pp. 275–281. [https://doi.org/10.1016/j.electacta.2012.02.097 doi: 10.1016/j.electacta.2012.02.097.] </ref>. Electrochemical advanced oxidation process (EAOP) electrodes generally have a high overpotential for the oxygen evolution reaction, which allows them to produce [[wikipedia:Hydroxyl_radical|hydroxyl radicals]] (OH<sup>•</sup>), a strong oxidant [E<sup>0</sup>(OH<sup>•</sup>/H<sub>2</sub>O) = 2.8 vs normal hydrogen electrode (NHE)]<ref>Gligorovski, S., Strekowski, R., Barbati, S., and Vione, D., 2015. Environmental Implications of Hydroxyl Radicals (•OH). Chemical Reviews, 115(24), pp. 13051–13092. [https://doi.org/10.1021/cr500310b doi: 10.1021/cr500310b].</ref>, through water oxidation according to equation (1).
 H<sub>2</sub>O → OH<sup>•</sup> + H<sup>+</sup> + e<sup>-</sup>    (1)
@@ Line 45: / Line 45: @@
 ===Nitroguanidine (NQ)===
-Electrochemical oxidation of NQ has been reported recently on a porous Ti<sub>4</sub>O<sub>7</sub> electrode. Analysis by linear sweep voltammetry (LSV) revealed that NQ undergoes oxidation via a DET reaction<ref name=":0" />. Following the initial DET step, the resulting radical reacts with  as shown in the pathway in Figure 2. Analysis of oxidation byproducts showed the formation of nitrate, cyanamide, urea, and melamine depending on the electrode potential. The nitrate yield was observed to be a function of the initial NQ concentration. Lower concentrations of NQ showed higher nitrate yield, whereas higher concentrations of NQ led to lower nitrate yield due to increased byproduct formation from elevated NQ concentration.
+[[wikipedia:Electro-oxidation|Electrochemical oxidation]] of NQ has been reported recently on a porous Ti<sub>4</sub>O<sub>7</sub> electrode. Analysis by [[wikipedia:Linear_sweep_voltammetry#:~:text=In%20analytical%20chemistry%2C%20linear%20sweep,is%20swept%20linearly%20in%20time.|linear sweep voltammetry]] (LSV) revealed that NQ undergoes oxidation via a DET reaction<ref name=":0" />. Following the initial DET step, the resulting radical reacts with  as shown in the pathway in Figure 2. Analysis of oxidation byproducts showed the formation of [[wikipedia:Nitrate|nitrate]], [[wikipedia:Cyanamide|cyanamide]], [[wikipedia:Urea|urea]], and [[wikipedia:Melamine|melamine]] depending on the electrode potential. The nitrate yield was observed to be a function of the initial NQ concentration. Lower concentrations of NQ showed higher nitrate yield, whereas higher concentrations of NQ led to lower nitrate yield due to increased byproduct formation from elevated NQ concentration.
 ===3-Nitro-1-2-4-triazol-5-one (NTO)===
-Studies from the literature showed that NTO undergoes electrochemical oxidation via a direct electron transfer mechanism, as studies conducted on a glassy carbon electrode showed an increase in current for NTO-spiked solutions<ref name=":1" />. A pathway for electrochemical oxidation of NTO has also been proposed (Figure 3). According to the proposed pathway, NTO forms 5-nitrotriazolinone in the initial step. Due to its unstable nature, it decomposes to form O<sub>2</sub>N - CN, CO and N<sub>2</sub>. The O<sub>2</sub>N - CN  compound then hydrolyzes and forms HNO<sub>2</sub> and HOCN. Additional hydrolysis products of nitrate and ammonium were also observed<ref name=":1" />.
+Studies from the literature showed that NTO undergoes electrochemical oxidation via a direct electron transfer mechanism, as studies conducted on a glassy carbon electrode showed an increase in current for NTO-spiked solutions<ref name=":1" />. A pathway for electrochemical oxidation of NTO has also been proposed (Figure 3). According to the proposed pathway, NTO forms 5-nitrotriazolinone in the initial step. Due to its unstable nature, it decomposes to form O<sub>2</sub>N-CN, CO and N<sub>2</sub>. The O<sub>2</sub>N-CN  compound then hydrolyzes and forms [[wikipedia:Nitrous_acid|HNO<sub>2</sub>]] and [[wikipedia:Isocyanic_acid|HOCN]]. Additional hydrolysis products of nitrate and [[wikipedia:Ammonium|ammonium]] were also observed<ref name=":1" />.
 ===2,4-Dinitroanisole (DNAN)===
-Experimental and computational work has shown that DNAN can undergo both direct and indirect electrochemical oxidation<ref name=":0" /><ref>Zhou, Y., Liu, X., Jiang, W., and Shu, Y., 2018. Theoretical Insight into Reaction Mechanisms of 2,4-Dinitroanisole with Hydroxyl Radicals for Advanced Oxidation Processes. Journal of Molecular Modeling, 24 (2), pp. 44. [https://doi.org/10.1007/s00894-018-3580-4 doi: 10.1007/s00894-018-3580-4].</ref><ref>Su, H., Christodoulatos, C., Smolinski, B., Arienti, P., O’Connor, G., and Meng, X., 2019. Advanced Oxidation Process for DNAN Using UV/H<sub>2</sub>O<sub>2</sub>. Engineering, 5(5), pp. 849–854. [https://doi.org/10.1016/j.eng.2019.08.003 doi: 10.1016/j.eng.2019.08.003][//www.enviro.wiki/images/9/9a/Su2019.pdf Article pdf]</ref>. Electrochemical oxidation of DNAN has produced nitrate, carbon dioxide, and water as the terminal byproducts<ref name=":0" />. DNAN can undergo direct oxidation on the anode as predicted by DFT calculations<ref name=":0" />. Moreover, it can also react with  produced on the anode through  addition and H atom abstraction mechanisms, ultimately leading to destabilization and ring-opening reactions<ref name=":0" />.<sup>12</sup> The DNAN electrochemical oxidation pathway is shown in Figure 4.
+Experimental and computational work has shown that DNAN can undergo both direct and indirect electrochemical oxidation<ref name=":0" /><ref>Zhou, Y., Liu, X., Jiang, W., and Shu, Y., 2018. Theoretical Insight into Reaction Mechanisms of 2,4-Dinitroanisole with Hydroxyl Radicals for Advanced Oxidation Processes. Journal of Molecular Modeling, 24 (2), pp. 44. [https://doi.org/10.1007/s00894-018-3580-4 doi: 10.1007/s00894-018-3580-4].</ref><ref name=":5">Su, H., Christodoulatos, C., Smolinski, B., Arienti, P., O’Connor, G., and Meng, X., 2019. Advanced Oxidation Process for DNAN Using UV/H<sub>2</sub>O<sub>2</sub>. Engineering, 5(5), pp. 849–854. [https://doi.org/10.1016/j.eng.2019.08.003 doi: 10.1016/j.eng.2019.08.003][//www.enviro.wiki/images/9/9a/Su2019.pdf Article pdf]</ref>. Electrochemical oxidation of DNAN has produced nitrate, carbon dioxide, and water as the terminal byproducts<ref name=":0" />. DNAN can undergo direct oxidation on the anode as predicted by DFT calculations<ref name=":0" />. Moreover, it can also react with  produced on the anode through  addition and H atom abstraction mechanisms, ultimately leading to destabilization and ring-opening reactions<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":5" />. The DNAN electrochemical oxidation pathway is shown in Figure 4.
 ===2,4,6-Trinitrotoluene (TNT)===
-Electrochemical oxidation of TNT on a boron-doped-diamond (BDD) electrode was primarily attributed to H-atom abstraction reactions by OH<sup>•</sup><ref name=":2" />. Gas chromatography-mass spectrometry was used to identify the byproducts from TNT oxidation. Detection of compounds like trinitrobenzene and 1,3-dinitrobenzene supports the proposed pathway shown in Figure 5.
+Electrochemical oxidation of TNT on a boron-doped-diamond (BDD) electrode was primarily attributed to H-atom abstraction reactions by OH<sup>•</sup><ref name=":2" />. [[wikipedia:Gas_chromatography–mass_spectrometry|Gas chromatography-mass spectrometry]] was used to identify the byproducts from TNT oxidation. Detection of compounds like trinitrobenzene and [[wikipedia:1,3-Dinitrobenzene|1,3-dinitrobenzene]] supports the proposed pathway shown in Figure 5.
 ===Hexahydro -1,3,5-trinitro-1,3,5-triazine (RDX)===
-Electrochemical oxidation of RDX was studied on a TiO<sub>2</sub>-nantube/SnO<sub>2</sub>-Sb anode<ref name=":3" />. The proposed pathway (Figure 6) is based on synergistic electrochemical oxidation and reduction. RDX is first reduced to mono, di, and tri-nitroso RDX on the cathode based on the pathway. These intermediates are then attacked by OH<sup>•</sup> generated on the anode which leads to ring-opening reactions due to H abstraction by OH<sup>•</sup>. Formaldehyde, formic acid, nitrate, and nitrite were detected as terminal byproducts.
+Electrochemical oxidation of RDX was studied on a TiO<sub>2</sub>-nantube/SnO<sub>2</sub>-Sb anode<ref name=":3" />. The proposed pathway (Figure 6) is based on synergistic electrochemical oxidation and reduction. RDX is first reduced to mono, di, and tri-nitroso RDX on the cathode based on the pathway. These intermediates are then attacked by OH<sup>•</sup> generated on the anode which leads to ring-opening reactions due to H abstraction by OH<sup>•</sup>. [[wikipedia:Formaldehyde|Formaldehyde]], [[wikipedia:Formic_acid|formic acid]], nitrate, and [[wikipedia:Nitrite|nitrite]] were detected as terminal byproducts.
 ===1,3,5,7-tetranitro-1,3,5,7-tetrazocane (HMX)===
-To date there is not any experimental evidence of HMX reacting through a direct electrochemical oxidation mechanism. However, some studies proposed that HMX reacted through indirect electrochemical oxidation<ref name=":4" /><ref>Bonin, P.M.L., Bejan, D., Radovic-Hrapovic, Z., Halasz, A., Hawari, J., and Bunce, N. J., 2005. Indirect Oxidation of RDX, HMX, and CL-20 Cyclic Nitramines in Aqueous Solution at Boron-Doped Diamond Electrodes. Environmental Chemistry'','' 2(2), pp. 125–129. [https://doi.org/10.1071/EN05006 doi: 10.1071/EN05006] </ref>. The electrochemical oxidation pathway is driven by the reaction of RDX with electrochemically generated hydroxyl radicals through the addition mechanism (Figure 7). Detection of smaller compounds such as methylene dinitramine, urea, and acetamide provides support for this pathway.
+To date there is not any experimental evidence of HMX reacting through a direct electrochemical oxidation mechanism. However, some studies proposed that HMX reacted through indirect electrochemical oxidation<ref name=":4" /><ref>Bonin, P.M.L., Bejan, D., Radovic-Hrapovic, Z., Halasz, A., Hawari, J., and Bunce, N. J., 2005. Indirect Oxidation of RDX, HMX, and CL-20 Cyclic Nitramines in Aqueous Solution at Boron-Doped Diamond Electrodes. Environmental Chemistry'','' 2(2), pp. 125–129. [https://doi.org/10.1071/EN05006 doi: 10.1071/EN05006] </ref>. The electrochemical oxidation pathway is driven by the reaction of RDX with electrochemically generated hydroxyl radicals through the addition mechanism (Figure 7). Detection of smaller compounds such as methylene dinitramine, urea, and [[wikipedia:Acetamide|acetamide]] provides support for this pathway.
 ==Conclusion==

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-Electrochemical treatment of [[Munitions Constituents|munitions constituents]] is an emerging technology for the remediation of explosive compounds in wastewater. This process utilizes electrochemical oxidation mechanisms to degrade both legacy explosives, as well as newer [[wikipedia:Insensitive_munition|insensitive high explosives]]. The treatment relies on direct electron transfer reactions and the generation of highly reactive hydroxyl radicals at the electrode surface. Recent research has elucidated the oxidation pathways and byproducts for various munitions constituents, demonstrating the potential of electrochemical methods as an effective and environmentally friendly alternative to traditional adsorption-based treatments for explosive-contaminated water.
+Electrochemical treatment of [[Munitions Constituents|munitions constituents]] is an emerging technology for the remediation of explosive compounds in wastewater. This process utilizes electrochemical oxidation mechanisms to degrade both legacy explosives, as well as newer [[wikipedia:Insensitive_munition|insensitive high explosives]]. The treatment relies on direct electron transfer reactions and the generation of highly reactive [[wikipedia:Hydroxyl_radical|hydroxyl radicals]] at the electrode surface. Recent research has elucidated the oxidation pathways and byproducts for various munitions constituents, demonstrating the potential of electrochemical methods as an effective and environmentally friendly alternative to traditional [[Munitions Constituents - Sorption|adsorption-based treatments]] for explosive-contaminated water.
 <div style="float:right;margin:0 0 2em 2em;">__TOC__</div>
@@ Line 24: / Line 24: @@
 ==Introduction==
-Munitions constituents (MC) refer to the energetic compounds utilized in various military applications, such as propellants, artillery shells, and ballistic agents. Legacy munitions constituents typically include compounds such as 2,4,6-trinitrotoluene (TNT), Hexahydro-1,3,5-trinitro-1,3,5-triazine (RDX), and 1,3,5,7-tetranitro-1,3,5,7-tetrazocane (HMX). However, due to safety concerns, there has been a shift towards the use of Insensitive High Explosives (IHEs). These compounds offer reduced susceptibility to unintended detonation, enhancing safety in military applications. One notable example of an IHE is IMX-101, a standard explosive formulation containing 2,4-dinitroanisole (DNAN), nitroguanidine (NQ), and 3-nitro-1-2-4-triazol-5-one (NTO).
+[[Munitions Constituents|Munitions constituents]] refer to the energetic compounds utilized in various military applications, such as propellants, artillery shells, and ballistic agents. Legacy munitions constituents typically include compounds such as [[wikipedia:TNT|2,4,6-trinitrotoluene]] (TNT), [[wikipedia:RDX|Hexahydro-1,3,5-trinitro-1,3,5-triazine]] (RDX), and [[wikipedia:HMX|1,3,5,7-tetranitro-1,3,5,7-tetrazocane]] (HMX). However, due to safety concerns, there has been a shift towards the use of [[wikipedia:Insensitive_munition|Insensitive High Explosives]] (IHEs). These compounds offer reduced susceptibility to unintended detonation, enhancing safety in military applications. One notable example of an IHE is [[wikipedia:IMX-101|IMX-101]], a standard explosive formulation containing [[wikipedia:2,4-Dinitroanisole|2,4-dinitroanisole]] (DNAN), [[wikipedia:Nitroguanidine|nitroguanidine]] (NQ), and [[wikipedia:Nitrotriazolone|3-nitro-1-2-4-triazol-5-one]] (NTO).
 ==Electrochemical Oxidation Mechanisms==

@@ Line 1: / Line 1: @@
-Electrochemical treatment of [[Munitions constituents|munitions constituents (MC)]] is an emerging technology for the remediation of explosive compounds in wastewater. This process utilizes electrochemical oxidation mechanisms to degrade both legacy explosives, as well as newer insensitive high explosives. The treatment relies on direct electron transfer reactions and the generation of highly reactive hydroxyl radicals at the electrode surface. Recent research has elucidated the oxidation pathways and byproducts for various munitions constituents, demonstrating the potential of electrochemical methods as an effective and environmentally friendly alternative to traditional adsorption-based treatments for explosive-contaminated water.
+Electrochemical treatment of [[Munitions Constituents|munitions constituents]] is an emerging technology for the remediation of explosive compounds in wastewater. This process utilizes electrochemical oxidation mechanisms to degrade both legacy explosives, as well as newer [[wikipedia:Insensitive_munition|insensitive high explosives]]. The treatment relies on direct electron transfer reactions and the generation of highly reactive hydroxyl radicals at the electrode surface. Recent research has elucidated the oxidation pathways and byproducts for various munitions constituents, demonstrating the potential of electrochemical methods as an effective and environmentally friendly alternative to traditional adsorption-based treatments for explosive-contaminated water.
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@@ Line 9: / Line 9: @@
 *[[Munitions Constituents - Alkaline Degradation]]
 *[[Munitions Constituents – Photolysis]]

← Older revision		Revision as of 21:55, 21 February 2025
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−	Electrochemical treatment of munitions constituents (MC) is an emerging technology for the remediation of explosive compounds in wastewater. This process utilizes electrochemical oxidation mechanisms to degrade both legacy explosives, as well as newer insensitive high explosives. The treatment relies on direct electron transfer reactions and the generation of highly reactive hydroxyl radicals at the electrode surface. Recent research has elucidated the oxidation pathways and byproducts for various munitions constituents, demonstrating the potential of electrochemical methods as an effective and environmentally friendly alternative to traditional adsorption-based treatments for explosive-contaminated water.	+	Electrochemical treatment of [[Munitions constituents\|munitions constituents (MC)]] is an emerging technology for the remediation of explosive compounds in wastewater. This process utilizes electrochemical oxidation mechanisms to degrade both legacy explosives, as well as newer insensitive high explosives. The treatment relies on direct electron transfer reactions and the generation of highly reactive hydroxyl radicals at the electrode surface. Recent research has elucidated the oxidation pathways and byproducts for various munitions constituents, demonstrating the potential of electrochemical methods as an effective and environmentally friendly alternative to traditional adsorption-based treatments for explosive-contaminated water.

	<div style="float:right;margin:0 0 2em 2em;">__TOC__</div>		<div style="float:right;margin:0 0 2em 2em;">__TOC__</div>

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 ==Conclusion==
 Electrochemical oxidation of pollutants is a potentially effective technology using electrons as reactants, not requiring chemical dosage. It can be a viable alternative to adsorption-based methods for treating munitions constituents, eliminating the need for additional waste treatment and disposal.
-[[File:ChaplinFig4.png | thumb | 550px | left | Figure 4. Proposed electrochemical oxidation pathway of DNAN on Ti<sub>4</sub>O<sub>7</sub> electrode (adapted from Islam et al., 2024)<ref name=":0" />.]]
+[[File:ChaplinFig4.png | thumb | 650px | left | Figure 4. Proposed electrochemical oxidation pathway of DNAN on Ti<sub>4</sub>O<sub>7</sub> electrode (adapted from Islam et al., 2024)<ref name=":0" />.]]
-[[File:ChaplinFig5.png | thumb | 550px | left| Figure 5. Proposed pathway for electrochemical oxidation of TNT on boron-doped diamond (BDD) electrode (redrawn from Szopińska et al., 2024)<ref name=":2" />.]]
+[[File:ChaplinFig5.png | thumb | 650px | left| Figure 5. Proposed pathway for electrochemical oxidation of TNT on boron-doped diamond (BDD) electrode (redrawn from Szopińska et al., 2024)<ref name=":2" />.]]
 [[File:ChaplinFig6.png | thumb | 550px | center | Figure 6. Proposed pathway for electrochemical oxidation of RDX on TiO<sub>2</sub> -nanotube/ SnO<sub>2</sub>-Sb electrode (redrawn from Chen et al., 2011)<ref name=":3" />.]]
 [[File:ChaplinFig7.png | thumb | 550px | center | Figure 7. Proposed pathway for electrochemical oxidation of HMX on TiO<sub>2</sub> -Pb electrode (redrawn from Qian et al., 2022)<ref name=":4" />.]]

@@ Line 65: / Line 65: @@
 [[File:ChaplinFig4.png | thumb | 550px | left | Figure 4. Proposed electrochemical oxidation pathway of DNAN on Ti<sub>4</sub>O<sub>7</sub> electrode (adapted from Islam et al., 2024)<ref name=":0" />.]]
 [[File:ChaplinFig5.png | thumb | 550px | left| Figure 5. Proposed pathway for electrochemical oxidation of TNT on boron-doped diamond (BDD) electrode (redrawn from Szopińska et al., 2024)<ref name=":2" />.]]
-[[File:ChaplinFig6.png | thumb | 550px | left | Figure 6. Proposed pathway for electrochemical oxidation of RDX on TiO<sub>2</sub> -nanotube/ SnO<sub>2</sub>-Sb electrode (redrawn from Chen et al., 2011)<ref name=":3" />.]]
+[[File:ChaplinFig6.png | thumb | 550px | right | Figure 6. Proposed pathway for electrochemical oxidation of RDX on TiO<sub>2</sub> -nanotube/ SnO<sub>2</sub>-Sb electrode (redrawn from Chen et al., 2011)<ref name=":3" />.]]
-[[File:ChaplinFig7.png | thumb | 550px | left | Figure 7. Proposed pathway for electrochemical oxidation of HMX on TiO<sub>2</sub> -Pb electrode (redrawn from Qian et al., 2022)<ref name=":4" />.]]
+[[File:ChaplinFig7.png | thumb | 550px | right | Figure 7. Proposed pathway for electrochemical oxidation of HMX on TiO<sub>2</sub> -Pb electrode (redrawn from Qian et al., 2022)<ref name=":4" />.]]
 ==References==